Vulnerability of livelihoods in Kagbeni, Mustang district, Nepal

Abstract

In the current world wide debate on climate change it is globally accepted that several areas and livelihoods are being threatened by climate factors. Different climate circumstances could impact livelihoods in several ways. Since climate related inputs like rain and snow are most crucial for cultivation, agricultural based societies and communities see either an adverse or beneficial impact of climate variability. Except for climate related exposures, diverse other exposures like in demographic, environmental and political spheres could have an impact on livelihoods. Some households can be more or less vulnerable to exposures than others, depending on different factors like their sensitivity and adaptive capacity (Hahn, 2008). Which exposures are apparent and how vulnerable certain livelihoods are, depend on the specific context in which a study is conducted. Mountain livelihoods see different climate circumstances and livelihood strategies then for example livelihoods depending on rain forest. Mountain regions are considered as being one of the most fragile ecosystems and highly exposed to climate variability which can make livelihoods vulnerable. Despite this, little attention is paid to the vulnerability of mountain livelihoods (ICIMOD, 2010). This study focuses on mountain livelihoods in the Himalayan region of Nepal, namely the village of Kagbeni situated in the Mustang district. It assesses the range of factors that could be responsible for vulnerability of Kagbeni livelihoods. Kagbeni is situated on almost 3000 meters altitude and characterized by a harsh semi-desert climate in which households mainly depend on irrigation fed agriculture, livestock keeping and the relative new development of tourism. Another main income source is remittances, derived from household members living in Pokhara, Kathmandu or India. Kagbeni village and the surrounding area are highly influenced by Tibetan Buddhism which is a central phenomenon in daily life. The exposure towards climate variability, the sensitivity including water, food, health and energy security and the responses to these vulnerable factors are investigated among households in Kagbeni. Therefore, livelihood strategies used by households in Kagbeni are of main importance to be studied. Besides, two main developments, namely tourism and the new road construction that connect Kagbeni to the outside world, have been responsible for the opening up of the village and therefore influence Kagbeni livelihoods in several ways. The primary exposure to climate variability is decrease in snowfall, showing most adverse impacts on livelihoods of Kagbeni. As except for glacial melt water, snow is the most crucial input factor for cultivation as well as food for animals, a decrease is most problematic. Responses to this climate variability are the traditional saving of seeds and crops for the next season as well as the extensive use of the communal irrigation system and the irrigation of grass fields to feed animals. The primary factor making livelihoods of Kagbeni sensitive is the insufficient and difficult accessibility of drinking water. During wintertime, tap water is often frozen while in summertime the water contains too much sediment to be drinkable. Although this problem has been existing for long times, the increasing demand on drinking water (due to amongst other tourism) as well as possible climate related adverse influences like less snowfall makes this factor a serious problem. Responses are the use of roof tanks to catch rain water and the practice of sediment sinking in which water is filtered. Moreover, energy security is insufficient, due to the shortage of fuel wood and affordable alternatives. Also, food security is lacking among a great part of the households as food has to be bought from outside Kagbeni. This food transport is most difficult during spring and summer season when the monsoon is apparent in the lower valleys causing bad road conditions. Besides, during winter season no cultivation and harvest is possible and food is insufficient to feed all households of Kagbeni. A traditional method to alter this problem is seasonal migration in which household members move to Pokhara, Kathmandu or India to sell clothes or materials while living and eating at the particular destination. Only few household members stay during winter season in Kagbeni to take care of livestock and the houses. The new road, constructed in 2006, has a diverse impact on different factors among households in Kagbeni. Transport opportunities have increased since travel times have been shortening and goods can be transported for a lower price. Especially, food from outside Kagbeni like rice has become cheaper. Also energy sources, like gas and kerosene, can be supplied while before this was not or hardly possible. On the other side, adverse impacts are visible like pollution and the destruction of land. After all, households in Kagbeni have a diverse range of livelihood diversifications including the relative new developments of apple production and Yarsagumba trade. However, the opportunities in livelihood strategies differ between indigenous and non-indigenous households. The latter group, mainly originated from neighboring districts or the Tibet Autonomous State, has fewer opportunities and seems to be more vulnerable in certain aspects then indigenous households. The main reason is that non indigenous households are excluded from the owning of land, community meetings and access to forests, according to the traditional institutional system of Kagbeni. As a consequence, it is shown that non-indigenous households do not, or into a lesser extent, benefit from tourism since they are hardly able to own lodges or tourism affiliated businesses. Besides, they even face more problems in for example energy supply then indigenous households.