Understanding online threat victimization: the roles of online activity, digital protective measures, gender and age

Abstract

This study investigates the predictors of online threat victimization and repeat victimization within the Dutch population. Drawing on Routine Activity Theory (RAT) and Repeat Victimization Theory, it examines how individual characteristics, online behaviors, and protective measures influence the likelihood of being threatened online. The study utilizes nationally representative data from the Longitudinal Internet Studies for the Social Sciences (LISS) panel, focusing on three research questions: (1) the prevalence of online threats and affected groups, (2) the impact of online activity and digital protective behaviors on victimization, and (3) the role of gender and age in repeat victimization. Findings indicate that individuals who engage in a wider variety of online activities are significantly more likely to experience online threats, confirming the relevance of exposure within RAT. However, digital protective behaviors, both technical (e.g., firewalls) and behavioral (e.g., caution online), were not associated with reduced victimization risk. This challenges the assumption that self-guardianship effectively deters interpersonal online harm. Furthermore, neither gender nor age significantly predicted repeat victimization, suggesting that once targeted, other factors, such as offender persistence or digital context, may drive repeated threats. The study highlights the limitations of traditional cybercrime theories in explaining interpersonal online threats. It calls for expanded frameworks that account for emotional, ideological, and relational dimensions of harm. Policy implications include a shift toward privacy-by-default platform design and systemic interventions, rather than individual responsibility alone. These findings contribute to digital victimology by refining theoretical models and offering actionable insights for improving online safety.