Navigating the PFAS Phase-Out in the Outdoor Apparel Industry

Abstract

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) have been widely used in the outdoor apparel industry due to their water- and stain-resistant properties. However, the growing awareness of their environmental persistence and health risks has led to regulatory pressure and public scrutiny. Through the lens of the Technological Innovation System (TIS) framework, this thesis examines the evolution of the PFAS phase-out in the European outdoor apparel sector, analysing the interplay between regulatory, technological, and consumer pressures over time. A more nuanced understanding of how actor strategies—from proactive to defensive—and system functions coevolve during sustainability transitions is made possible by the TIS, which is extended here to analyse a phase-out process rather than a classical technology emergence. Methodologically, a Socio-Technical Configuration Analysis (STCA) was conducted using qualitative coding of documents. Actor and concept networks were constructed for three temporal phases: early awareness and experimentation (2009–2015), scaling and regulatory momentum (2016–2020), and convergence and normalisation (2021–2025). An expert interview further validated the STCA results. These networks traced how the system functions and strategic orientations evolved throughout the transition. The findings reveal that the PFAS phase-out emerged from a cumulative, multi-actor process rather than being driven by a single breakthrough: Phase 1 was characterised by legitimation and guidance of search led by NGOs and early commitments, Phase 2 by increased actor coordination and resource mobilization, and Phase 3 by market formation and institutional alignment. Strategic behaviour proved central, with proactive actors shaping innovation and legitimation, while defensive actors delayed commitment due to concerns over technical performance and regulatory ambiguity. Ultimately, the study reveals that sustainability transitions involving the phase-out of entrenched technologies depend on the sequencing of system functions and the interplay of actor strategies, with barriers such as technological uncertainty, coordination failures, and regulatory inconsistencies gradually overcome through increasing innovation capacity and civil society pressure. By expanding the TIS framework to address phase-out dynamics, this research offers practical insights for managing similar substitution transitions in other industries.