The representation of gender transgression in Dutch, English, French and German early modern translations of Ovid’s Metamorphose

Abstract

In this thesis early modern adaptations of the myth of Tiresias, Hermaphroditus and Salmacis, Iphis and Caenis/Caeneus of the Metamorphoses by Publius Ovidius Naso (34 BC – AD 17) are analysed. In these four myths, gender transformations occur in which characters either transform into the opposite sex or into a mixture of both sexes (a hermaphrodite). The thesis explores the discrepancy between the fictional world of Ovid and the 'real' word of early modern Europe in regard to gender transgression by studying the way in which the four myths are used, manipulated, depicted and/or censured in early modern translations and commentaries. Moreover, it investigates if interpretations of these myths changed over time and if they differed per Northern European country (England, the Dutch Republic, France and Germany). The early modern adaptations show that gender transgression was viewed with the utmost suspicion and was seen as abnormal: gender transgression distorted the social and natural order. This narrative is enforced by the use of explicit early modern notions of gender, which are emphasized in these translations and added to the original text. The myths are used to define and reinforce these distinctions, considering any deviation from these norms as abnormal. Specifically, the fear of becoming feminine is emphasized, which is presented as being an abominable fate. There are some clear differences between the four respective countries. While the German translations are chaste and religious in nature, the French translations are very sexually explicit and emphasize that women have a significantly lower position in society. The Dutch and English translations stay true to the original, although in the commentary of these translations transgression of gender is again rejected. The distinctions between men and women were so strong that it was impossible to overcome them, even if they are described in a fictional world.