Religious Expression in Modern Society - Muslim women’s spatial strategies and embodiment of Islam in public space in the multi-ethnic city of Utrecht

Abstract

Religious expression in modern society. To some this might seem contradictory, to others it is a simple fact of life. This thesis aims to grasp the variety of ways in which Muslim women express and perform their religion in the city of Utrecht. The following research question is formulated: how and why do Muslim women in the multi-ethnic city of Utrecht adopt spatial strategies to express and negotiate their religion in public space? In order to answer this question, this research uses the approach called ‘theory testing’. Theories about some central concepts are analysed. These are for example Göle’s (2011) theory of visibility and embodiment of Islam as a form of agency, Ehrkamp’s (2008) emphasis on the power relations constituting public space and Amiraux’ (2016) theory of the celebrity-level of attention given to Muslim women as gendered subjects embodying religious difference or ‘otherness’. Other theories are for example Sayad’s (2002) breakdown of Islamophobia in the West and Gökariksel’s (2007) ideas about the secularisation thesis held by some in Western society. By analysing literature about these concepts and comparing it to in-depth interviews with Muslim women in Utrecht, several theoretical findings are confirmed, nuanced or rejected. Following the literature and interviews, the main results of this research are that the secularisation thesis, a perspective held by a certain part of society, does not seem to hold up. Furthermore, little indication is found that Islam has a huge impact on women’s spatial behaviour, as popular discourse often suggests. Some places may be avoided because haram activities are practised there, yet it is mostly cultural context which is crucial when it comes to Muslim women’s spatial strategies. The causal relations between what is perceived as public space and who uses public space, is therefore reversed. This means a nuance on the negative view on Islam is reasonable. None of the interviewees indicated they saw Islam as very restrictive in a spatial sense. The presence of embodied Islamic difference is not counter to modernisation or indeed Western civilisation and progress. Its presence is the outcome of a liberal-democratic system. In order to bring the ideal of the latter to full expression, governments in Utrecht and other institutions might do well to allow for the expression of religious difference.