Male migration and the feminisation of agriculture in Nepal: boon or bane? Exploring the relation between changing social dynamics and agricultural practices from a gender perspective

Abstract

Male labour migration is a socially-embedded phenomenon in Nepal, having diverse consequences for rural farming villages. Migration trends have resulted in changing social dynamics and increasing numbers of de facto female-headed households. The resulting phenomenon has come to be referred to as the feminisation of agriculture and has sparked debate among development professionals regarding associated impacts. Some argue women enjoy improved livelihoods and opportunities for empowerment, while others criticise the increased workload as women must now carry productive and reproductive burdens in the absence of men. From a gender perspective, impacts in rural Nepal as a result of male migration have yet to be comprehensively assessed. The objective of this research was to investigate the underlying gender dynamics between male migration and changing agricultural and irrigation practices in rural Nepal, and the implications of the so-called feminisation of agriculture on women’s livelihoods. Within agricultural practices, farmer-managed irrigation systems play a large role, and their management – particularly through Water Users associations (WUA) – have always been a male-dominated area. Villages within well-established irrigation systems were thus selected for the field work, as they provide good settings to look at changing participation and roles of women at both household and community level. The qualitative research entailed conducting in-depth interviews with de facto female heads of households with access to irrigated land, as well as a number WUA committee members. The results showed migration is indeed still increasing and has become a normalised livelihood strategy for rural households in the hills of Nepal. Although changes to agriculture and irrigation practices are not yet significant, current trends point to bigger structural changes in the future. The resultant lack of male labour has indeed increased women’s workload and responsibilities within agriculture and irrigation management at the household level. Although there is a degree of increased female authority and decision-making, the findings suggest this is circumstantial and ultimately limited by historical gender norms and cultural beliefs. This is further evidenced by current participation of women in WUA committees which is merely tokenistic, with the purpose of complying with existing regulations. Feminisation of agriculture is currently not resulting in a sustained increase in agency of women. Longitudinal studies are called for to evaluate all factors impacting women’s capabilities in the face of migration if gender interventions and policies are to be successful.