In de schaduw van de regenboog. Een benadering van burgerschap; belonging van jongeren in townships op macro, meso en microniveau.

Abstract

What does it mean to be part of the born-free generation of South Africa but not have access to the opportunities promised to this generation? This research aims to give insight in the ways poor black youth living in the townships of Cape Town experience citizenship as members of a highly divided society in which they take a very vulnerable position. Because of pervasive poverty, violence and neglect by the state in dealing with these problems, the youth in this research have been excluded from the traditional spaces of citizenship. The idea of South Africa as a Rainbow Nation with opportunities for all has not become reality for these youths; they seem to be living in the shadow of the Rainbow Nation. However, this does not mean that these youths do not experience citizenship. This research argues that the way these youths experience citizenship is shaped through relations with multiple communities in which youths are involved. Therefore, we conceptualize citizenship through the interpretation of Yuval-Davis (1999) as multilayered citizenship. We argue that when it comes to citizenship, not only rights and responsibilities but also belonging is an important element that constitutes it. The feeling of belonging is particularly crucial because these youths do not have full access to their citizenship rights. To analyze citizenship as a multi-layered concept that emphasizes belonging we propose a model of three levels which correspond with the three levels of belonging from Yuval-Davis (2006). The first level is the value system in which individuals judge their and others positions. This corresponds to our first level, macro, in which we provide insight at citizenship feelings and values on the level of the nation state. Our data shows that the youth in the townships of Cape Town have a strong believe in the Rainbow Nation of Nelson Mandela. However, they also feel that the government fails to support them or provide them with opportunities they need to become autonomous and responsible citizens. The lack of trust in thee government is countered with a lot of confidence in themselves and the community. This translates into ambitious, but unrealistic hopes and dreams for a future in which these youths hope to be autonomous and responsible citizens. The second level of belonging is that of the different communities an individual is part of. We connect this to a meso level where we analyze the belonging these youths feels towards the black community. These youths feel connected through a shared descendance from the KhoiKhoi, a shared past of apartheid and a shared presence in poverty. The shared equality in terms of poverty defines the black community. When one of their own escapes poverty and becomes successful, it results in friction. This friction occurs when the value of economic equality is not maintained. The last level of belonging is the social position, in our model this entails the micro level. The social position of the youths in this research is determined by their direct community in the township. Instead of interacting directly with the state, members of the community are represented by key figures in the community. Also, the community harnesses itself against crime by taking matters into its own hands. The social-political organization of township life is controlled by the community. The economic organization in the form of reciprocity lies at the base of this organization. The reciprocity originated from necessity in the township because the government did not provide them with any services during apartheid. In order to survive, the people in townships came together as communities which have regained family-like values for the members of the community. Our argument is that because these youths are excluded from most of the citizenship rights, belonging with the black community and the direct community become more important. It is remarkable and plausible legacy of Nelson Mandela that these youths in spite of their failing state have not given up on the dream of the Rainbow Nation.