GUARDIANS OF LOMBOK? THE RISE, CONSOLIDATION, AND DECLINE OF MASS VIGILANTE GROUP AMPHIBI IN CENTRAL LOMBOK

Abstract

This thesis examines the emergence, power consolidation, and subsequent decline of the vigilante group Amphibi in Central Lombok from 1998 to 2017. The central argument of this research is that vigilante groups such as Amphibi are likely to arise in multi-communal states experiencing significant human needs deprivation. Yet, these groups only gain widespread popular support when their actions and strategies are perceived as effective by the communities they claim to represent. I use an adaptation of Edward Azar’s protracted social conflict framework to include the strategies vigilante groups use to garner popular support and a more nuanced understanding of state responses. Amphibi emerged against a backdrop of heightened crime and an ineffective state apparatus during Indonesia’s political and economic crisis in the late 1990s. The group’s rise was facilitated by its effective law enforcement, economic relief efforts, and the integration of cultural and religious practices, particularly through death ceremonies that provided both economic and spiritual benefits to members and their families. These activities, as well as alliances with influential Islamic clerics, enabled Amphibi to rapidly expand, reportedly claiming up to 200,000 members at its height. However, Amphibi’s rapid growth led to organisational challenges, including inadequate disciplinary measures and financial mismanagement, which eroded the group’s legitimacy and effectiveness. Increasingly violent enforcement methods resulted in public resistance and a loss of support. Initially cooperative, the Indonesian state gradually reasserted control over Amphibi, culminating in an agreement in 2017 that ended the group’s vigilante activities. This thesis contributes to the academic debate on non-state armed groups by highlighting the role of human needs deprivation in their emergence and the importance of effective performance in their consolidation of power. It also underlines the complex and often ambiguous relationships between vigilante groups and the state, providing insights that are crucial for developing potential strategies that limit the violent excesses typical of such groups.