Gene-editing crops to benefit smallholder farmers in developing countries: Realised potential or empty claims of inclusive innovation?

Abstract

This research studies the potential of gene-edited crops to deliver inclusive innovations: innovations that benefit marginalised groups. New gene-editing technologies such as CRISPR/Cas9 promise to contribute to overcoming challenges of food insecurity and poverty by improving crops. Though claims are made for this, these claims have not been tested. Studies on social implications of gene-edited crops are lacking. This research fills this literature gap by studying the research question: How inclusive are gene-editing research projects of crops for smallholder farmers in developing countries? For answering this, the inclusive innovation ladder (IIL) is enriched with distributive justice theory, into a comprehensive framework for analysing inclusion. The research is conducted by 23 semi-structured interviews studying 18 research projects that use gene-editing to improve crops with the aim to benefit smallholder farmers (SHFs). The results find that gene-editing realised the promise to include SHFs only to a certain extent. The projects only limitedly fulfil inclusion in all steps of the ladder and for the three distributive justice approaches. Furthermore, this research finds that gene- editing projects take different approaches towards inclusion. It identifies two models, which are metaphorically named Spacecraft and Helicopter models. Spacecrafts develop their crops far away from the ground and do not land to interact with SHFs before their crop is finished. Their inclusion on the higher steps of the IIL is very limited, as well as their equalizing and fairness aspects. Helicopters on the contrary land in developing countries to speak with SHFs, to ensure their crops meet the needs of the SHFs. Their inclusion on step 4-6 of the IIL is more profound and they have more inclusion measures of equalizing and fairness approaches. Despite being more inclusive, also for Helicopter projects inclusion could be improved on various aspects. This research gives concrete recommendations for how inclusion this could be done. The theoretical framework proved to be useful in identifying the limitations of inclusion, therefore it could be used in future research on inclusivity of innovations, in the agricultural sector and beyond.